Habits in writing as in life are only useful if they are broken as soon as they cease to be advantageous.

This chapter is about habit. As Samuel Beckett once noted, "Habit is the ballast that chains the dog to his vomit.” It is amazing how consistently we repeat the exact same little errors out of mere habit. However, we can tackle these habits by identifying them as patterns and writing with an eye for them. As a graduate student, I once misspelled the word "separate” (using an "e” in the middle) 16 times on an exam. My professor circled the offending letter each time and glibly noted, "I wish you could spell better.” His chiding cured me, and (knock wood) I have not misspelled "separate” since. Many students find that they have picked up the habit of putting commas in automatically before prepositions or even after conjunctions rather than before. Once such habits are identified, however, they can be addressed effectively.

No matter how niggling they may seem, details about punctuation, mechanics, capitalization, and spelling are important to master. Even with the spell checker and grammar checker eternally activated, we can make plenty of tiny mistakes that deeply affect sentence meaning. I know of an engineer who has repeatedly reported inaccurate dollar amounts to clients because of his sloppy proofreading. I have read government reports by well-published scientists where the colon was misused more than a dozen times in a single report. Even capitalization rules can be highly important to meaning: a student in geology, for example, must be aware of whether or not to capitalize "ice age” (yes, when you mean the specific glacial epoch; no, when you mean any of a series of cold periods alternating with periods of relative warmth). Finally, small mechanical errors (such as abbreviating a term or acronym improperly) reflect a general sloppiness and disregard for convention.

So work on the little things. Seek to understand punctuation marks as units affecting grammar and meaning, and accept proper spelling, capitalization, and mechanics as professional necessities. This chapter will help you to do so without immersing you in a grammatical swamp.

A wise writer once said, "If you take hyphens seriously you will surely go mad." Hyphens belong to that category of punctuation marks that will hurt your brain if you think about them too hard, and, like commas, people disagree about their use in certain situations. Nevertheless, if you learn to use hyphens properly, they help you to write efficiently and concretely, and you will have to use them regularly because of the nature of technical writing. Because concepts in science and engineering frequently rely on word blends and complex word relationships, the best writers in these fields master the use of the hyphen.

The Hyphen's Function

Fundamentally, the hyphen is a joiner. It joins:

• two nouns to make one complete word (kilogram-meter);
• an adjective and a noun to make a compound word (accident-prone);
• two words that, when linked, describe a noun (agreed-upon sum, two-dimensional object);
• a prefix with a noun (un-American);
• double numbers (twenty-four);
• numbers and units describing a noun (1000-foot face; a 10-meter difference);
• "self" and "well" words (self-employed, well-known);
• ethnic labels (Irish-American);
• new word blends (cancer-causing, cost-effective);
• prefixes and suffixes to words when the writer wants to avoid doubling a vowel or tripling a consonant (anti-inflammatory; shell-like).

The rule of thumb I apply when using the hyphen is that the resulting word must act as one unit; therefore, the hyphen creates a new word—either a noun or a modifier—having a single meaning. Usually, you can tell whether a hyphen is necessary by applying common sense and mentally excluding one of the words in question, testing how the words would work together without the hyphen. For example, the phrases "high-pressure system," "water-repellent surface," and "fuel-efficient car" would not make sense without hyphens, because you would not refer to a "high system," a "water surface," or a "fuel car." As your ears and eyes become attuned to proper hyphenation practices, you will recognize that both meaning and convention dictate where hyphens fit best.

Examples of Properly Used Hyphens

Some examples of properly used hyphens follow. Note how the hyphenated word acts as a single unit carrying a meaning that the words being joined would not have individually.

Examples

• small-scale study
• two-prong plug
• strength-to-weight ratio
• high-velocity flow
• well-known example
• frost-free lawn
• self-employed worker
• one-third majority
• coarse-grained wood
• decision-making process
• blue-green algae
• air-ice interface
• silver-stained cells
• protein-calorie malnutrition
• membrane-bound vesicles
• phase-contrast microscope
• long-term-payment loan
• cost-effective program
• time-dependent variable
• radiation-sensitive sample
• long-chain fatty acid

When Hyphens Are Not Needed

By convention, hyphens are not used in words ending in -ly... In these examples, no hyphens are needed:

Examples

• finely tuned engine
• blood pressure
• sea level
• real estate
• census taker
• atomic energy
• civil rights law
• public utility plant
• carbon dioxide

Prefixes and Suffixes

Most prefixes do not need to be hyphenated... The following is a list of common prefixes that do not require hyphenation:

Common Prefixes

• after
• anti
• bi
• bio
• co
• cyber
• di
• down
• hetero
• homo
• infra
• inter
• macro
• micro
• mini
• nano
• photo
• poly
• stereo
• thermo

Common suffixes also do not require hyphenation... Typically, you do not need to hyphenate words ending in the following suffixes:

Common Suffixes

• able
• less
• fold
• like
• wise

Commonly Used Word Blends

Also, especially in technical fields, some words commonly used in succession become joined into one... Here are examples:

Common Word Blends

• blackbody
• groundwater
• airship
• downdraft
• longwall
• upload
• setup
• runoff
• blowout

As you already know, apostrophes are used to form both contractions—two words collapsed into one—and possessives. Handily, we can virtually ignore the issue of contractions here, since they are so easily understood and are rarely used in technical writing. With possessives, the apostrophe is used, typically in combination with an "s," to represent that a word literally or conceptually "possesses" what follows it. The apostrophe is also used for general terms to indicate the singular possessive case.

Examples of Singular Possessives

• a student's paper
• the county's borders
• a nation's decision
• one hour's passing
• miner's inch
• author's revisions

Apostrophes with Words Ending in "s"

Although practices vary, for words that already end in "s," whether they are singular or plural, we typically indicate possession simply by adding the apostrophe without an additional "s."

Examples

• Presidents' Day
• Student Affairs' Office
• Mars’ atmosphere
• interviewees’ answers

Apostrophes with Acronyms and Numerals

In technical writing, acronyms are frequently pluralized with the addition of an "s," but there is no need to put an apostrophe in front of the "s" when your intention is simply to pluralize rather than show possession. When referring to decades, form the plural by adding an "s," but do not use the apostrophe.

Plural Forms: Correct vs. Incorrect

Correct

• SSTs
• the 1960s
• she is in her 30s

Incorrect

• SST's
• the 1960's
• she is in her 30's

When numerals or letters serve as the name of something and an "s" is needed, use an apostrophe before the "s" to make it clear that the letters are not part of the name.

Names Ending in Letters or Numerals

Correct

• Boeing 747's
• mind your p's and q's

Incorrect

• Boeing 747s
• mind your ps and qs

When Possessives Are Implied Without the Apostrophe

Convention and frequency of usage sometimes dictate that the apostrophe is dropped. In proper names that end in "s," especially geographic locations, academic institutions, and government entities, the apostrophe is often omitted. Likewise, in everyday combinations and acronyms where possession is automatically understood or contextually irrelevant, the apostrophe is not needed.

Examples Where the Apostrophe is Omitted

• United States government
• Hells Canyon
• Veterans Highway
• Harpers Ferry
• mens room
• Johns Hopkins University
• an FDA regulation
• the NIOSH position
• the Virginia legislation
• an 1860 law

Despite what you may see practiced—especially in advertising, on television, and even in business letters—the fact is that the period and comma go inside the quotation marks all of the time. Confusion arises because the British system is different, and the American system may automatically look wrong to you, but it is simply one of the frequently broken rules of written English in America: the period and comma go inside the quotation marks.

However, the semicolon, colon, dash, question mark, and exclamation point fall outside the quotation marks (unless, of course, the quoted material has internal punctuation of its own).

Punctuation marks: terribly powerful in the right hands. Punctuation marks are silent allies, and you can train yourself to exploit them as such. Punctuation marks do not just indicate sound patterns—they are symbols that clarify grammatical structure and sentence meaning. And, as I demonstrate in the writing of this paragraph, punctuation marks showcase your facility with the language. What follows are some basics about three of the most powerful and most commonly misused punctuation marks.

The Semicolon

The semicolon is often misused in technical writing; in fact, it is often confused with the colon. Grammatically, the semicolon almost always functions as an equal sign; it says that the two parts being joined are relatively equal in their length and have the same grammatical structure. Also, the semicolon helps you to link two things whose interdependency you wish to establish. The sentence parts on either side of the semicolon tend to "depend on each other" for complete meaning. Use the semicolon when you wish to create or emphasize a generally equal or even interdependent relationship between two things. Note the interdependent relationship of the two sentence parts linked by the semicolon in this example:

Here, we see how the second half of the sentence helps to explain a key detail (the sonde location) of the first half. The semicolon, along with the repetition of the word "location," helps to draw our attention to the explanation.

The semicolon is also handy for linking a series of parallel items that could otherwise be confused with each other. One savvy student used the semicolon in a job description on her resume as follows:

The Colon

The colon: well-loved but, oh, so misunderstood. The colon is not just used to introduce a list; it is far more flexible. The colon can be used after the first word of a sentence or just before the final word of a sentence. The colon can also be used to introduce a grammatically independent sentence. Thus, I call it the most powerful of punctuation marks.

The colon is like a sign on the highway, announcing that something important is coming. It acts as an arrow pointing forward, telling you to read on for important information. A common analogy used to explain the colon is that it acts like a flare in the road, signaling that something meaningful lies ahead.

Use the colon when you wish to provide pithy emphasis.

Use the colon to introduce material that explains, amplifies, or summarizes what has preceded it.

The colon is also commonly used to present a list or series, which comes in handy when there is a lot of similar material to join:

The Dash

The dash—which is typically typed as two hyphens or as one long bar (available on your word processor’s "symbol" map)—functions almost as a colon does in that it adds to the preceding material, but with extra emphasis. Like a caesura (a timely pause) in music, a dash indicates a strong pause, then gives emphasis to material following the pause. In effect, a dash allows you to redefine what was just written, making it more explicit. You can also use a dash as it is used in the first sentence of this paragraph: to frame an interruptive or parenthetical-type comment that you do not want to de-emphasize.

Finally, the dash we typically use is technically called the "em dash," and it is significantly longer than the hyphen. There is also an "en dash"—whose length is between that of the hyphen and the em dash, and its best usage is to indicate inclusive dates and numbers:

Like the em dash, the en dash is typically available on your word processor’s symbol map, or it may even be inserted automatically by your word processor when you type inclusive numbers or dates with a hyphen between them. When you type the hyphen, en dash, and em dash, no spaces should appear on either side of the punctuation mark.

These little demons compound and trivialize the nightmares of many a professor after an evening of reading student papers. A sure way to irritate educated readers of your work is to give them an overabundance of opportunities to address your comma problems. It is easy but dangerous to take the attitude that Sally once did in a Peanuts comic strip, asking Charlie Brown to correct her essay by showing her "where to sprinkle in the little curvy marks."

You have probably heard the common tips on using commas: "Use one wherever you would naturally use a pause," or "Read your work aloud, and whenever you feel yourself pausing, put in a comma." These techniques help to a degree, but our ears tend to trick us and we need other avenues of attack. However, it seems impossible to remember or apply the 17 or so grammatical explanations of comma usage that you were probably introduced to way back in 8th grade. (For example: "Use commas to set off independent clauses joined by the common coordinating conjunctions. . . . Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction in a series.") Perhaps the best and most instructive way, then, for us to approach the comma is to remember its fundamental function: it is a separator. Knowing this, it is useful to determine what sorts of things generally require separation. In sum, commas are used to separate complete ideas, descriptive phrases, and adjacent items, and before and after most transition words.

Comma Rules

Complete ideas need to be separated by a comma because, by definition, they could be grammatically autonomous, but the writer is choosing to link them. Complete ideas are potentially whole sentences that the writer chooses to link with a conjunction such as "and" or "but."

Note how the second half of this sentence contains both a subject ("this") and a verb ("allowed"), indicating that a second complete idea is presented, and thus a comma is required.

Descriptive phrases often need to be separated from the things that they describe in order to clarify that the descriptive phrases are subordinate (i.e., they relate to the sentence context, but are less responsible for creating meaning than the sentence’s subject and verb). Descriptive phrases tend to come at the very beginning of a sentence, right after the subject of a sentence, or at the very end of a sentence.

In each of these cases, note how the material separated by the comma (e.g., "making the possibility a reality") is subordinate—i.e., it carries context in the sentence, but the primary sentence meaning is still derived from the subject and verb. In each example, the phrase separated by the comma could be deleted from the sentence without destroying the sentence’s basic meaning.

Adjacent items are words or phrases that have some sort of parallel relationship, yet are different from each other in meaning. Adjacent items are separated so that the reader can consider each item individually.

In the first sentence, the commas are important because each item presented is distinctly different from its adjacent item. In the second example, the dates (July 4, 1968) and places (Cleveland, Ohio) are juxtaposed, and commas are needed because the juxtaposed items are clearly different from each other. In the third example, the three phrases, all beginning with different verbs, are parallel, and the commas work with the verbs to demonstrate that "This approach" has three distinctly different impacts.

Finally, transition words add new viewpoints to your material; commas before and after transition words help to separate them from the sentence ideas they are describing. Transition words tend to appear at the beginning of or in the middle of a sentence, and, by definition, the transition word creates context that links to the preceding sentence. Typical transition words that require commas before and after them include however, thus, therefore, also, and nevertheless.

Using a Comma Before "And"

It is true that commas are sometimes optional, depending on sentence meaning and the writer’s taste, and many writers choose not to put a comma before the "and" in a series (also known as the "serial comma") involving a parallel list of words. For example, some would write the sentence "I am industrious, resourceful and loyal," using no comma before the "and." This practice is fine as long as you are consistent in applying it. However, I, and the grammar handbooks I consult, recommend a comma even in these circumstances, because—even in the example provided—there is a slight pitch and meaning change between the terms "resourceful" and "loyal."

Most importantly, if the "and" is part of a series of three or more phrases (groups of words) as opposed to single words, you should use a comma before the "and" to keep the reader from confusing the phrases with each other.

By always using a comma before the "and" in any series of three or more, you honor the distinctions between each of the separated items, and you avoid any potential reader confusion. The bottom line is this: When you use a comma before the "and" in a series of three or more items or phrases, you are always correct.

That noted, be aware that some professors and many journals will not favor the use of the comma before an "and" in a series (for the journals, it is literally cheaper to print fewer commas).

Comma Overuse

Perhaps the best way to troubleshoot your particular comma problems, especially if they are serious, is to identify and understand the patterns of your errors. We tend to make the same mistakes over and over again; in fact, many writers develop the unfortunate habit of automatically putting commas into slots such as these:

• between the subject and verb of a sentence
• after any number
• before any preposition
• before or after any conjunction

Thus, incorrect sentences such as these appear in papers:

If the commas above look fine to you, then you may be in the habit of using commas incorrectly, and you will need to attack your specific habits, perhaps even in a routine, repetitive fashion, in order to break yourself of them. Similarly, it is common for someone to have to look up the same tricky word dozens of times before committing its proper spelling to memory. As with spelling, commas (or the absence of commas) must be repeatedly challenged in your writing. As you perfect your comma usage you are also recognizing and reevaluating your sentence patterns, and the rewards are numerous. There is no foolproof or easy way to exorcise all of your comma demons, but reminding yourself of the comma’s basic function as a separator and justifying the separation of elements whenever you use the comma is a good beginning. I often recommend to students with comma problems that they re-read their work one last time, just focusing on their comma use, before turning in a paper as a final version. In the end, you simply must make a habit of reading, writing, and revising with comma correctness in mind, and remember that commas have much to do with sentence wording, which is always in the control of the writer.

To demonstrate this last point, Lewis Thomas, a clever essayist as well as a physician and poet, shows us how to use commas effectively—as well as how to word a long sentence so that commas are not overused—in this excerpt from "Notes on Punctuation":

The commas are the most useful and usable of all the stops. It is highly important to put them in place as you go along. If you try to come back after doing a paragraph and stick them in the various spots that tempt you you will discover that they tend to swarm like minnows into all sorts of crevices whose existence you hadn’t realized and before you know it the whole long sentence becomes immobilized and lashed up squirming in commas. Better to use them sparingly, and with affection, precisely when the need for one arises, nicely, by itself.

Though a seemingly trivial punctuation mark, the period does present some knotty challenges, especially in technical writing. We all know to place a period to signal the termination of a simple sentence that makes a statement. However, here are a few more specialized rules:

• Do not use a period in combination with other punctuation marks unnecessarily, especially when a quotation is involved. In such an instance, end the sentence naturally on whatever punctuation mark is logical (e.g., a question mark).
• Avoid using periods at the ends of abbreviated units of measure, except when the period might be confused with another word. (Therefore, so that it’s not confused with the word "in," use "in." to abbreviate "inches.")
• When using a period in conjunction with parentheses, the period comes after the parentheses are closed if the parenthetical comment itself is part of the larger sentence (as in the first bulleted sentence above, and this one). The period comes inside the parentheses only when the parentheses themselves contain a complete independent sentence. (See the example in the second bulleted sentence above, as well as this sentence.)
• By convention, if an abbreviated word (such as "etc.") ends a sentence, let a single period signal the sentence’s end—two periods in a row would be incorrect.
• In acronyms commonly understood or commonly used in your field (ASTM, EPA, US, GIS), do not use periods after the capital letters.
• Do use periods after abbreviations and acronyms that are forms of address, initials within proper names, earned degrees, and when expressing measures of time (Dr. Bauer; M.S. degree; Steven S. Wilson, Jr.; 5:00 p.m.; 10 B.C.).

We are used to using parentheses to identify material that acts as an aside (such as this brief comment) or to add incidental information, but in technical writing the rules for using parentheses can be more nuanced. Some more specialized functions of parentheses include:

• To introduce tables or figures within a sentence:

  In pulse-jet collectors (Figure 3), bags are supported from a metal cage fastened onto a cell plate at the top of the collector.

• To represent converted units:

  The funnel used for this experiment was 7 in. (17.8 cm) in length.

• When enumerating:

  The system has three principal components: (1) a cleaning booth, (2) an air reservoir, and (3) an air spray manifold.

• To indicate product manufacturer names:

  The filtering process involves a 10-mm Dorr-Oliver cyclone (Zefon International).

• To introduce an acronym after it has been written out:

  Units will be expressed in cubic feet per minute (cfm).

Finally, it should be noted that punctuation used alongside parentheses needs to take into account their context. If the parentheses enclose a full sentence beginning with a capital letter, then the end punctuation for the sentence falls inside the parentheses. For example:

If the parentheses indicate a citation at the end of a sentence, then the sentence’s end punctuation comes after the parentheses are closed:

Finally, if the parentheses appear in the midst of a sentence (as in this example), then any necessary punctuation (such as the comma that appeared just a few words ago) is delayed until the parentheses are closed.

Abbreviations (the shortened form of a word or phrase) and acronyms (words formed from the initial letters of a phrase) are commonly used in technical writing. In some fields, including chemistry, medicine, computer science, and geographic information systems, acronyms are used so frequently that the reader can feel lost in an alphabet soup. However, the proper use of these devices enhances the reading process, fostering fluid readability and efficient comprehension.

Some style manuals devote entire chapters to the subject of abbreviations and acronyms, and your college library no doubt contains volumes that you can consult when needed. Here, I provide just a few principles you can apply in using abbreviations and acronyms, and in the next section I offer a table of some of the forms most commonly used by student writers.

Abbreviations

• Typically, abbreviate social titles (Ms., Mr.) and professional titles (Dr., Rev.).
• In resumes and cover letters, avoid abbreviations representing titles of degrees (e.g., write out rather than abbreviate "Bachelor of Science").
• Follow most abbreviations with a period, except those representing units of measure ("Mar." for March; "mm" for millimeter). See the table that follows for further guidance.
• Typically, do not abbreviate geographic names and countries in text (i.e., write "Saint Cloud" rather than "St. Cloud"; write "United States" rather than "U.S."). However, these names are usually abbreviated when presented in "tight text" where space can be at a premium, as in tables and figures.
• Use the ampersand symbol (&) in company names if the companies themselves do so in their literature, but avoid using the symbol as a narrative substitute for the word "and" in your text.
• In text, spell out addresses (Third Avenue; the Chrysler Building) but abbreviate city addresses that are part of street names (Central Street SW).
• Try to avoid opening a sentence with an abbreviation; instead, write the word out.
• When presenting a references page, follow the conventions of abbreviation employed by a journal in your field. To preserve space, many journals commonly use abbreviations, without periods, in their references pages (e.g., "J" for Journal; "Am" for "American").

Acronyms

• Always write out the first in-text reference to an acronym, followed by the acronym itself written in capital letters and enclosed by parentheses. Subsequent references to the acronym can be made just by the capital letters alone. For example:

  Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a rapidly expanding field. GIS technology . . .

• Unless they appear at the end of a sentence, do not follow acronyms with a period.
• Generally, acronyms can be pluralized with the addition of a lowercase "s" ("three URLs"); acronyms can be made possessive with an apostrophe followed by a lowercase "s" ("the DOD’s mandate").
• As subjects, acronyms should be treated as singulars, even when they stand for plurals; therefore, they require a singular verb ("NIOSH is committed to . . .").
• Be sure to learn and correctly use acronyms associated with professional organizations or certifications within your field (e.g., ASME for American Society of Mechanical Engineers; PE for Professional Engineer).
• With few exceptions, present acronyms in full capital letters (FORTRAN; NIOSH). Some acronyms, such as "scuba" and "radar," are so commonly used that they are not capitalized. Consult the table that follows in the next section to help determine which commonly used acronyms do not appear in all capital letters.
• When an acronym must be preceded by "a" or "an" in a sentence, discern which word to use based on sound rather than the acronym’s meaning. If a soft vowel sound opens the acronym, use "an," even if the acronym stands for words that open with a hard sound (i.e., "a special boat unit," but "an SBU"). If the acronym opens with a hard sound, use "a" ("a KC-135 tanker").

Download a commonly used abbreviations & acronyms table (PDF)

Style manuals, professional societies, and journals specific to your field publish thorough guidelines about how to handle small matters of mechanics. For instance, Suggestions to Authors of the Reports of the United States Geological Survey addresses such issues as whether to use the chemical name or symbol in writing; the American Meteorological Society’s Authors’ Guide dictates how one should express time, time zone, day, month, and year in writing. Chase down such sources within your field for specifics on matters of mechanics.

Two especially noteworthy issues of mechanics that arise regularly in technical writing are how to handle temperature measurements and numbers. Some guidelines on these matters follow.

Referring to Temperature Measurements

Degree measures of temperature are normally expressed with the ° symbol rather than by the written word, with a space after the number but not between the symbol and the temperature scale:

Unlike the abbreviations for Fahrenheit and Celsius, the abbreviation for Kelvin (which refers to an absolute scale of temperature) is not preceded by the degree symbol (i.e., 12 K is correct).

Writing about Numbers

The rules for expressing numbers in technical writing are relatively simple and straightforward:

• All important measured quantities—particularly those involving decimal points, dimensions, degrees, distances, weights, measures, and sums of money—should be expressed in numeral form (e.g., 1.3 seconds, $25,000, 2 amperes).
• Unless they appear as part of a string of larger related numbers, counted numbers of nine and below should be written out. Numbers 10 and above should be in numeral form.
• If possible, a sentence should not begin with a number, but if it does the number should be written out.
• Treat similar numbers in grammatically connected groups alike.

Following these rules, here are some examples of properly expressed numbers:

As a technical writer, who must often refer to such things as geographic locations, company names, temperature scales, and processes or apparatuses named after people, you must learn to capitalize consistently and accurately. What follows are ten fundamental rules for capitalization. Check out the first rule. It gets fumbled in papers all the time.

Capitalize the names of major portions of your paper and all references to figures and tables. Note: Some journals and publications do not follow this rule, but most do.

Examples

• my Introduction
• Airshaft 3
• see Figure 4
• Table 1
• Appendix A
• Graph

Capitalize the names of established regions, localities, and political divisions.

Examples

• Wheeling Township
• the French Republic
• Lancaster County
• the United Kingdom
• the Wheat Belt
• the Arctic Circle

Capitalize the names of highways, routes, bridges, buildings, monuments, parks, ships, automobiles, hotels, forts, dams, railroads, and major coal and mineral deposits.

Examples

• Highway 13
• Route 1
• Michigan Avenue
• the White House
• Alton Railroad
• the Statue of Liberty
• Herrin No. 6 seam
• the Queen Elizabeth

Capitalize the proper names of persons, places and their derivatives, and geographic names (continents, countries, states, cities, oceans, rivers, mountains, lakes, harbors, and valleys).

Examples

• Howard Pickering
• Great Britain
• Chicago
• British
• New York Harbor
• Gulf of Mexico
• Rocky Mountains
• Florida
• Aleutian Islands
• the Aleutian low

Capitalize the names of historic events and documents, government units, political parties, business and fraternal organizations, clubs and societies, companies, and institutions.

Examples

• the Second Amendment
• the Civil War
• Congress
• Bureau of Mines
• Republicans
• Ministry of Energy

Capitalize titles of rank when they are joined to a person’s name and the names of stars and planets. Note: The names earth, sun, and moon are not normally capitalized, although they may be capitalized when used in connection with other bodies of the solar system.

Examples

• Professor Walker
• President Barron
• Milky Way
• Venus

Capitalize words named after geographic locations, the names of major historical or geological time frames, and most words derived from proper names. Note: The only way to be sure if a word derived from a person’s name should be capitalized is to look it up.

Examples

• Coriolis force
• Fourier coefficients
• English tweeds
• Walker Circulation
• Hadley cell
• Petri dish
• Boyle’s law
• Russell volumeter
• Planck’s constant
• Klinkenberg effect
• Middle Jurassic Period
• Mesozoic Era
• the Industrial Revolution
• the Inquisitio

Capitalize references to temperature scales, whether written out or abbreviated.

Examples

• 10 ^oF — Fahrenheit degrees
• 22 ^oC — Celsius degrees

Capitalize references to major sections of a country or the world.

Examples

• the Near East
• the South

Capitalize the names of specific courses, the names of languages, and the names of semesters.

Examples

• Anatomy 20
• Russian
• Spring semester 2009
• Fall term, 2006

Common Capitalization Errors

Just as important as knowing when to capitalize is knowing when not to. Below, I set forth a few instances where capital letters are commonly used when they should not be. When in doubt, consult a print dictionary.

Do not capitalize the names of the seasons unless personified.

Examples

• spring
• winter

Do not capitalize the words north, south, east, and west when they refer to directions.

Examples

• We traveled west.
• The sun rises in the east.

Do not capitalize commonly used words that have come to have specialized meaning.

Examples

• navy blue
• india ink
• pasteurization
• biblical

Do not capitalize the names of elements.

Examples

• tungsten
• nitrogen
• oxygen
• californium

Do not capitalize words that are used so frequently and informally that they have generalized meaning.

Examples

• north pole
• big bang theory
• arctic climate
• midwesterner

To understand the limited power of the spell checker, enjoy the following poem, whose origins are unknown.

I have a spelling checker
It came with my PC;
It plainly marks four my revue
Mistakes I cannot sea.
I've run this poem threw it,
I'm sure your pleased too no,
Its letter perfect in it's weigh,
My checker tolled me sew.

Just as so many of us rely on calculators to do all our math for us—even to the point that we do not trust calculations done by our own hand—far too many of us use spell checkers as proofreaders, and we ultimately use them to justify our laziness. I once received a complaint from an outraged professor that a student had continually misspelled "miscellaneous" as "mescaline" (a hallucinogenic drug). The student’s spell checker did not pick up the error, but the professor certainly did.

So proceed with caution when using spell checkers. They are not gods, and they do not substitute for meticulous proofreading and clear thinking. There is an instructive moment in a M*A*S*H episode when Father Mulcahy complains to Colonel Potter about a typo in a new set of Bibles—one of the commandments reads “Thou shalt commit adultery.” Always proofread a hard copy with your own two eyes.

Six Rules for Spelling

I have a crusty old copy of Instant Spelling Dictionary (1964), and I adapted the six basic spelling rules below from that reference.

Rule 1

In words ending with a silent “e,” drop the “e” before a suffix beginning with a vowel.

Common Exceptions:

• manageable
• singeing
• mileage
• advantageous
• dyeing
• acreage
• peaceable
• canoeing
• lineage

Rule 2

In words ending with a silent “e,” retain the “e” before a suffix that begins with a consonant.

Common Exceptions:

• ninth (from nine)
• argument (from argue)
• wisdom (from wise)
• wholly (from whole)

Rule 3

In words of two or more syllables that are accented on the final syllable and end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel.

If the accent is not on the last syllable, do not double the consonant:

Rule 4

In one-syllable words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel.

Rule 5

In words ending in “y” preceded by a consonant, change the “y” to “i” before any suffix not beginning with “i.”

If the final “y” follows a vowel, do not change it:

• journeys
• obeying
• essays
• buys
• repaying
• attorneys

Rule 6

Use “i” before “e” except when the two letters follow “c” and have an “e” sound, or when they have an “a” sound, as in “neighbor” and “weigh.”

i before e (e sound)

• shield
• believe
• grieve
• mischievous

e before i (a sound)

• vein
• weight
• veil
• neighbor

Common Exceptions:

• weird
• foreign
• forfeit
• either
• ancient
• neither
• sovereign
• siege
• height
• seize
• surfeit
• leisure

If you do find yourself over-relying on spell checkers or misspelling the same word for the 17th time this year, it would obviously be to your advantage to improve your spelling. One shortcut to doing this is to consult the following list of words that are frequently used and misspelled. Many smart writers even put a mark next to a word whenever they have to look it up, thereby helping themselves identify those fiendish words that give them the most trouble. To improve your spelling, you must commit the words you frequently misspell to memory, and physically looking them up until you do so is an effective path to spelling perfection.

A

• abandon
• abandoned
• abundant
• absence
• academic
• academically
• accelerator
• accept
• acceptable
• accessible
• accidentally
• accommodate
• accompanied
• accompanying
• accomplish
• accumulate
• accuracy
• accustomed
• achievement
• acknowledge
• acknowledgment
• acquaintance
• acquire
• acquit
• acre
• acreage
• across
• actually
• address
• admission
• admittance
• adolescent
• adolescence
• advantageous
• advertisement
• aerial
• against
• aggravate
• aggressive
• aisle
• a lot (never alot)
• allotting
• almost
• already
• always
• amateur
• among
• amount
• analysis
• analyze
• ancestry
• announcement
• annual
• apparatus
• apparent
• apparently
• appearance
• appreciate
• appropriate
• appropriately
• approximate
• approximately
• arctic
• arguing
• argument
• article
• artistically
• association
• athlete
• athletic
• attendance
• attitude
• awful
• awkward

B

• balance
• bankruptcy
• bargain
• basically
• battalion
• beautiful
• becoming
• before
• beginning
• believe
• beneficial
• benefited
• biased
• biggest
• boundary
• Britain
• bulletin
• bureaucratic
• business

C

• calendar
• camouflage
• candidate
• career
• careful
• category
• ceiling
• challenge
• channel
• chaos
• character
• characteristics
• chief
• chiefly
• choose
• chose
• chosen
• clothes
• clothing
• coarse
• column
• coming
• commercial
• commission
• commitment
• committee
• communism
• communists
• compel
• compelled
• competition
• completely
• concede
• conceivable
• condemn
• condemned
• conferred
• confused
• connoisseur
• conscience
• conscientious
• conscious
• consists
• continuous
• controlled
• controlling
• controversial
• convenient
• coolly
• criticism
• crowded
• cruelty
• curiosity
• curriculum

D

• dealt
• deceive
• decision
• deferred
• definite
• definitely
• definition
• descend
• description
• desirable
• desperate
• develop
• different
• dilemma
• disagree
• disappear
• disappoint
• disapprove
• disaster
• disastrous
• discern
• discipline
• discussion
• dispel
• disservice
• dissipate
• distinct
• duly
• during

E

• echoes
• efficiency
• efficient
• eighth
• eliminate
• ellipse
• embarrass
• eminent
• empty
• endeavor
• enemy
• enthusiastically
• entirely
• entrance
• environment
• equipment
• equipped
• especially
• essential
• except
• excellent
• excess
• existence
• experience
• explanation
• extremely

F

• fallacy
• familiar
• family
• fascinate
• fascism
• favorite
• February
• fiery
• finally
• financial
• financially
• fission
• fluorine
• foreign
• foresee
• foreseeable
• forfeit
• forty
• forward
• fourth
• frantically
• friend
• fulfill

G

• generally
• genius
• government
• grammar
• grammatically
• grandeur
• Great Britain
• grievance
• guarantee
• guerrilla
• guidance

H

• handicapped
• happily
• harass
• heard
• height
• here
• hindrance
• hoping
• hopeless
• humorous
• hundred
• hurriedly
• hygiene
• hypocrisy
• hypocrite

I

• ideally
• ignorant
• illogical
• imagine
• imitate
• immediately
• immense
• impossible
• incidentally
• independent
• individually
• ingenious
• initially
• initiative
• innocent
• innocuous
• inoculate
• intellectual
• intelligence
• intelligent
• insistent
• interest
• interfered
• interference
• interrupt
• iridescent
• irrelevant
• irreplaceable

J

• jewelry
• judgment
• judicial

K

• knowledge
• knowledgeable

L

• laboratory
• later
• lenient
• liable
• liaison
• library
• lightning
• likely
• listening
• literature
• loneliness
• loose
• lose
• lying

M

• magazine
• maintenance
• manageable
• maneuver
• manner
• manual
• marriage
• mathematics
• meant
• medicine
• medieval
• mileage
• millennium
• miniature
• miscellaneous
• mischievous
• missile
• misspelled
• mortgage
• muscle

N

• narrative
• naturally
• necessary
• necessity
• nineteen
• ninety
• ninth
• noticeable
• noticing
• nuclear
• nuisance
• numerous

O

• occasion
• occasionally
• occur
• occurred
• occurring
• occurrence
• official
• omission
• omit
• omitted
• oneself
• operate
• opinion
• opponent
• opportunity
• opposite
• oppression
• ordinarily
• originally

P

• pamphlet
• paraffin
• parallel
• parliament
• particular
• particularly
• pastime
• peaceable
• peculiar
• perceive
• permissible
• perseverance
• persistence
• pollute
• pollution
• population
• possess
• possession
• possible
• possibly
• practically
• preference
• preferred
• prejudice
• prejudiced
• primitive
• privilege
• probably
• proceed
• procedure
• profession
• professor
• publicly
• purpose

Q

• quantify
• quantity
• quiet
• quite

R

• realize
• rebellion
• recede
• receive
• recession
• recommend
• reference
• referring
• remembrance
• reservoir
• rhythm
• ridiculous

S

• saccharine
• sacrifice
• safety
• satellite
• schedule
• scientists
• scintillate
• separate
• sergeant
• shepherd
• shining
• shrubbery
• similar
• sincerely
• sophomore
• souvenir
• specifically
• statistics
• strenuous
• stretch
• stubbornness
• subtle
• subtly
• succeed
• success
• succession
• succinct
• sufficient
• summary
• summation
• summed
• supersede
• supposed
• suppress
• surely
• surprise
• surrounding
• syllable
• symmetry
• symmetrical

T

• tariff
• technique
• temperament
• temperature
• their
• therefore
• thorough
• though
• through
• tobacco
• tomorrow
• tragedy
• transferred
• trespass
• truly
• Tuesday
• twelfth
• tyranny

U

• unanimous
• unconscious
• uncontrollable
• undoubtedly
• unforeseen
• unmistakably
• unnatural
• unnecessary
• until
• usable
• useful
• usually

V

• vacuum
• valuable
• various
• vegetable
• vehicle
• vengeance
• villain
• violence
• vicious
• visible

W

• warring
• weather
• Wednesday
• weird
• where
• whether
• whistle
• wholly
• whose
• writing
• written

A

• abrasive
• absorption
• aggregate
• Aleutian
• algae
• algorithm
• alkali
• alkyl
• analogous
• angular
• anomalous
• anomaly
• aperture
• aquatic
• aqueous
• aquifer
• asbestos
• asymmetry

B

• bandwidth
• base line
• blackbody
• brackish
• buoyancy
• buoyant

C

• capacitance
• Celsius
• cetacean
• chromatography
• clear-cut
• climatology
• coaxial
• combustible
• condensation
• conductivity
• configuration
• corollary
• corrosion
• crustacean
• crustal
• crystalline
• crystallography

D

• data base
• deposition
• desiccant
• diffraction
• diffusion
• discrete
• dissymmetry
• divisible
• Doppler effect
• Doppler radar
• drainage

E

• ebullient
• ebullition
• eigenfunction
• eigenvalue
• emission
• emissivity
• end point
• equilibrium
• equinox
• evaporation
• eyepiece

F

• facies change
• Fahrenheit
• feedback
• ferromagnetism
• ferrous
• filterable
• flow chart
• fluorescence
• fluorescent
• Fourier series
• Fresnel equations

G

• geyser
• glacial
• gradient

H

• half-life
• halogen
• hatchable
• heat-treat
• histogram
• histology
• horsepower
• hybridization
• hydraulic
• hysteresis

I

• in situ
• incandescent
• infinitesimal
• inflection
• infrared
• interference
• isotropic
• isotropism

L

• least squares
• logarithm
• luminance
• luminescence
• luminescent
• luminosity
• luminous

M

• manganese
• mean life
• measurable
• metallurgical
• metallurgy
• midpoint
• monetar

N

• Newton's law
• nucleation
• nucle

O

• opaque
• operable
• optical
• orogeny
• oscillation

P

• parameter
• peninsula
• permeability
• Petri dish
• phosphorus
• photo-ionization
• photocell
• piezoelectric
• Planck's constant
• plateau
• polarization
• polygon
• polymerization
• porosity
• precipitation
• predominant

R

• radiant
• radio frequency
• radioactive
• radiocarbon
• refractive
• resistant
• resistivity
• retardance
• reversible
• rock salt

S

• salinity
• seismic
• side band
• sinusoidal
• solenoid
• solid state
• soluble
• space-time
• spectrometer
• spectroscopy
• steam-distilled
• stochastic
• strata
• stratigraphic
• stratigraphy
• subsidence

T

• terranes
• test tube
• tidal
• tonnage
• tornadoes
• transit time
• transmissible
• transmissivity
• transmittance
• troposphere
• trough
• typhoon

U

• unionized

V

• valence
• viscometer
• viscosimeter
• viscosity
• viscous
• visible

W

• wave front
• wave packet
• wave system
• wave theory
• wavelength
• wettability

X

• xenolith