8.3 Refugees and Asylum Seekers - Defined

In the previous lesson we spent a great deal of time discussing migrants and the different types of migration. We specifically discussed “forced migration,” where individuals are coerced to migrate, which includes asylum seekers and refugees. As evidenced by the title of this lesson, asylum seekers and refugees will be the focus of this week.  First, we should begin with how these two categories of migrants are defined and how they are related to each other.

The definitions of who refugees and asylum seekers are should be relatively cut and dry; however, you’ll find that like with much of what we discuss, this is not the case (even though this is probably one time it really should be quite easy). Generally speaking, both refugees and asylum seekers are persons who are leaving their country of origin and seeking residence in a destination country due to persecution of some kind, violation of human rights, natural disasters, etc. The major difference between asylum seekers and refugees is that asylum seekers are waiting for legal recognition of their refugee status (Amnesty International, 2021).

Refugee status does come with certain legal protections under the 1951 Convention and 1967 Optional Protocol relating to the status of refugees. The 1951 Convention defines a refugee as a person “who is outside his or her country of nationality or habitual residence who is unable or unwilling to return due to a well-founded fear of persecution based on his or her race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group” (International Justice Resource Center, n.d.). While the Convention and Protocol provide legal for refugees and the rights afforded to them, it does not indicate how a state determines who is a refugee, which has led to differences in how countries determine who is a refugee (International Justice Resource Center, n.d.; Zetter 2007).  That said, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 146 countries signed the 1951 Convention and 146 signed the 1967 Protocol. The number of countries that signed one or both is 149 and are depicted in Figure 1. South Sudan, the world’s youngest nation, gained independence in 2011, and ratified the 1951 convention in 2018. Don’t let the years fool you, though the Refugee Convention and Protocol were written in 1951 and 1967, respectively, countries continue to ratify the contents.

Figure 8.1 Map displaying the ratifiers of either the 1951 Convention or the 1967 Protocol as of at least 2018.

Click here to see the data for the map above

Table 8.1 - Ratifiers of the United Nations 1951 Refugee Convention and 1967 Protocol

Country	Convention	Protocol
Afghanistan	30 Aug 2005 - Accession	30 Aug 2005 - Accession
Albania	18 Aug 1992 - Accession	18 Aug 1992 - Accession
Algeria	21 Feb 1963 - Succession	08 Nov 1967 - Accession
Angola	23 Jun 1981 - Accession	23 Jun 1981 - Accession
Antigua and Barbuda	07 Sep 1995 - Accession	07 Sep 1995 - Accession
Argentina	15 Nov 1961 - Accession	06 Dec 1967 - Accession
Armenia	06 Jul 1993 - Accession	06 Jul 1993 - Accession
Australia	22 Jan 1954 - Accession	13 Dec 1973 - Accession
Austria	01 Nov 1954 - Ratification	05 Sep 1973 - Accession
Azerbaijan	12 Feb 1993 - Accession	12 Feb 1993 - Accession
Bahamas (the)	15 Sep 1993 - Accession	15 Sep 1993 - Accession
Belarus	23 Aug 2001 - Accession	23 Aug 2001 - Accession
Belgium	22 Jul 1953 - Ratification	08 Apr 1969 - Accession
Belize	27 Jun 1990 - Accession	27 Jun 1990 - Accession
Benin	04 Apr 1962 - Succession	06 Jul 1970 - Accession
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	09 Feb 1982 - Accession	09 Feb 1982 - Accession
Bosnia and Herzegovina	01 Sep 1993 - Succession	01 Sep 1993 - Succession
Botswana	06 Jan 1969 - Accession	06 Jan 1969 - Accession
Brazil	16 Nov 1960 - Ratification	07 Apr 1972 - Accession
Bulgaria	12 May 1993 - Accession	12 May 1993 - Accession
Burkina Faso	18 Jun 1980 - Accession	18 Jun 1980 - Accession
Burundi	19 Jul 1963 - Accession	15 Mar 1971 - Accession
Cabo Verde		09 Jul 1987 - Accession
Cambodia	15 Oct 1992 - Accession	15 Oct 1992 - Accession
Cameroon	23 Oct 1961 - Succession	19 Sep 1967 - Accession
Canada	04 Jun 1969 - Accession	04 Jun 1969 - Accession
Central African Republic (the)	04 Sep 1962 - Succession	30 Aug 1967 - Accession
Chad	19 Aug 1981 - Accession	19 Aug 1981 - Accession
Chile	28 Jan 1972 - Accession
China	24 Sep 1982 - Accession	24 Sep 1982 - Accession
Colombia	10 Oct 1961 - Ratification	04 Mar 1980 - Accession
Congo (the)	15 Oct 1962 - Succession	10 Jul 1970 - Accession
Costa Rica	28 Mar 1978 - Accession	28 Mar 1978 - Accession
Côte d'Ivoire	08 Dec 1961 - Succession	16 Feb 1970 - Accession
Croatia	12 Oct 1992 - Succession	12 Oct 1992 - Succession
Cyprus (the)	16 May 1963 - Succession	09 Jul 1968 - Accession
Czech Republic (the)	11 May 1993 - Succession	11 May 1993 - Succession
Denmark	04 Dec 1952 - Ratification	29 Jan 1968 - Accession
Democratic Republic of the Congo (the)	19 July 1965 - Accession	13 Jan 1975 - Accession
Djibouti	09 Aug 1977 - Succession	09 Aug 1977 - Succession
Dominica	17 Feb 1994 - Accession	17 Feb 1994 - Accession
Dominican Republic (the)	04 Jan 1978 - Accession	04 Jan 1978 - Accession
Ecuador	17 Aug 1955 - Accession	06 Mar 1969 - Accession
Egypt	22 May 1981 - Accession	22 May 1981 - Accession
El Salvador	28 Apr 1983 - Accession	28 Apr 1983 - Accession
Equatorial Guinea	07 Feb 1986 - Accession	07 Feb 1986 - Accession
Estonia	10 Apr 1997 - Accession	10 Apr 1997 - Accession
Ethiopia	10 Nov 1969 - Accession	10 Nov 1969 - Accession
Fiji	12 Jun 1972 - Succession	12 Jun 1972 - Succession
Finland	10 Oct 1968 - Accession	10 Oct 1968 - Accession
France	23 Jun 1954 - Ratification	03 Feb 1971 - Accession
Gabon	27 Apr 1964 - Accession	28 Aug 1973 - Accession
Gambia (the)	07 Sep 1966 - Succession	29 Sep 1967 - Accession
Georgia	09 Aug 1999 - Accession	09 Aug 1999 - Accession
Germany	01 Dec 1953 - Ratification	05 Nov 1969 - Accession
Ghana	18 Mar 1963 - Accession	30 Aug 1968 - Accession
Greece	05 Apr 1960 - Ratification	07 Aug 1968 - Accession
Guatemala	22 Sep 1983 - Accession	22 Sep 1983 - Accession
Guinea	28 Dec 1965 - Succession	16 May 1968 - Accession
Guinea-Bissau	11 Feb 1976 - Accession	11 Feb 1976 - Accession
Haiti	25 Sep 1984 - Accession	25 Sep 1984 - Accession
Holy See	15 Mar 1956 - Ratification	08 Jun 1967 - Accession
Honduras	23 Mar 1992 - Accession	23 Mar 1992 - Accession
Hungary	14 Mar 1989 - Accession	14 Mar 1989 - Accession
Iceland	30 Nov 1955 - Accession	26 Apr 1968 - Accession
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	28 Jul 1976 - Accession	28 Jul 1976 - Accession
Ireland	29 Nov 1956 - Accession	06 Nov 1968 - Accession
Israel	01 Oct 1954 - Ratification	14 Jun 1968 - Accession
Italy	15 Nov 1954 - Ratification	26 Jan 1972 - Accession
Jamaica	30 Jul 1964 - Succession	30 Oct 1980 - Accession
Japan	03 Oct 1981 - Accession	01 Jan 1982 - Accession
Kazakhstan	15 Jan 1999 - Accession	15 Jan 1999 - Accession
Kenya	16 May 1966 - Accession	13 Nov 1981 - Accession
Kyrgyzstan	08 Oct 1996 - Accession	08 Oct 1996 - Accession
Latvia	31 Jul 1997 - Accession	31 Jul 1997 - Accession
Lesotho	14 May 1981 - Accession	14 May 1981 - Accession
Liberia	15 Oct 1964 - Accession	27 Feb 1980 - Accession
Liechtenstein	08 Mar 1957 - Ratification	20 May 1968 - Accession
Lithuania	28 Apr 1997 - Accession	28 Apr 1997 - Accession
Luxembourg	23 Jul 1953 - Ratification	22 Apr 1971 - Accession
Madagascar	18 Dec 1967 - Accession
Malawi	10 Dec 1987 - Accession	10 Dec 1987 - Accession
Mali	02 Feb 1973 - Succession	02 Feb 1973 - Accession
Malta	17 Jun 1971 - Accession	15 Sep 1971 - Accession
Mauritania	05 May 1987 - Accession	05 May 1987 - Accession
Mexico	07 Jun 2000 - Accession	07 Jun 2000 - Accession
Monaco	18 May 1954 - Accession	16 June 2010 - Accession
Montenegro	10 Oct 2006 - Succession	10 Oct 2006 - Succession
Morocco	07 Nov 1956 - Succession	20 Apr 1971 - Accession
Mozambique	16 Dec 1983 - Accession	01 May 1989 - Accession
Namibia	17 Feb 1995 - Accession	17 Feb 1995 - Accession
Nauru	17 Jun 2011 - Accession	17 Jun 2011 - Accession
Netherlands (the)	03 May 1956 - Ratification	29 Nov 1968 - Accession
New Zealand	30 Jun 1960 - Accession	06 Aug 1973 - Accession
Nicaragua	28 Mar 1980 - Accession
Niger (the)	25 Aug 1961 - Succession	02 Feb 1970 - Accession
Nigeria	23 Oct 1967 - Accession	02 May 1968 - Accession
Norway	23 Mar 1953 - Ratification	28 Nov 1967 - Accession
Panama	02 Aug 1978 - Accession	02 Aug 1978 - Accession
Papua New Guinea	17 Jul 1986 - Accession	17 Jul 1986 - Accession
Paraguay	01 Apr 1970 - Accession	01 Apr 1970 - Accession
Peru	21 Dec 1964 - Accession	15 Sep 1983 - Accession
Philippines (the)	22 Jul 1981 - Accession	22 Jul 1981 - Accession
Poland	27 Sep 1991 - Accession	27 Sep 1991 - Accession
Portugal	22 Dec 1960 - Accession	13 Jul 1976 - Accession
Republic of Korea (the)	03 Dec 1992 - Accession	03 Dec 1992 - Accession
Republic of Moldova	31 Jan 2002 - Accession	31 Jan 2002 - Accession
Romania	07 Aug 1991 - Accession	07 Aug 1991 - Accession
Russian Federation (the)	02 Feb 1993 - Accession	02 Feb 1993 - Accession
Rwanda	03 Jan 1980 - Accession	03 Jan 1980 - Accession
Saint Kitts and Nevis	01 Feb 2002 - Accession
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	03 Nov 1993 - Accession	03 Nov 2003 - Accession
Samoa	21 Sep 1988 - Accession	29 Nov 1994 - Accession
Sao Tome and Principe	01 Feb 1978 - Accession	01 Feb 1978 - Accession
Senegal	02 May 1963 - Succession	03 Oct 1967 - Accession
Serbia	12 Mar 2001 - Succession	12 Mar 2001 - Succession
Seychelles	23 Apr 1980 - Accession	23 Apr 1980 - Accession
Sierra Leone	22 May 1981 - Accession	22 May 1981 - Accession
Slovakia	04 Feb 1993 - Succession	04 Feb 1993 - Succession
Slovenia	06 Jul 1992 - Succession	06 Jul 1992 - Succession
Solomon Islands	28 Feb 1995 - Accession	12 Apr 1995 - Accession
Somalia	10 Oct 1978 - Accession	10 Oct 1978 - Accession
South Africa	12 Jan 1996 - Accession	12 Jan 1996 - Accession
Spain	14 Aug 1978 - Accession	14 Aug 1978 - Accession
South Sudan	01 Oct 2018 - Accession	01 Oct 2018 - Accession
Sudan (the)	22 Feb 1974 - Accession	23 May 1974 - Accession
Suriname	29 Nov 1978 - Succession	29 Nov 1978 - Succession
Swaziland	14 Feb 2000 - Accession	28 Jan 1969 - Accession
Sweden	26 Oct 1954 - Ratification	04 Oct 1967 - Accession
Switzerland	21 Jan 1955 - Ratification	20 May 1968 - Accession
Tajikistan	07 Dec 1993 - Accession	07 Dec 1993 - Accession
The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia	18 Jan 1994 - Succession	18 Jan 1994 - Succession
Timor-Leste	07 May 2003 - Accession	07 May 2003 - Accession
Togo	27 Feb 1962 - Succession	01 Dec 1969 - Accession
Trinidad and Tobago	10 Nov 2000 - Accession	10 Nov 2000 - Accession
Tunisia	24 Oct 1957 - Succession	16 Oct 1968 - Accession
Turkey	03 Mar 1962 - Ratification	31 Jul 1968 - Accession
Turkmenistan	02 Mar 1998 - Accession	02 Mar 1998 - Accession
Tuvalu	07 Mar 1986 - Succession	07 Mar 1986 - Succession
Uganda	27 Sep 1976 - Accession	27 Sep 1976 - Accession
Ukraine	10 Jun 2002 - Accession	04 Apr 2002 - Accession
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the)	11 Mar 1954 - Ratification	04 Sep 1968 - Accession
United Republic of Tanzania (the)	12 May 1964 - Accession	04 Sep 1968 - Accession
United States of America (the)		01 Nov 1968 - Accession
Uruguay	22 Sep 1970 - Accession	22 Sep 1970 - Accession
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)		19 Sep 1986 - Accession
Yemen	18 Jan 1980 - Accession	18 Jan 1980 - Accession
Zambia	24 Sep 1969 - Succession	24 Sep 1969 - Accession
Zimbabwe	25 Aug 1981 - Accession	25 Aug 1981 - Accession

Credit: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

Environmental/Climate-Driven Migration

When most think about refugees and asylum seekers, they immediately think of those who are fleeing conflict areas, areas that are war torn, or have particular discriminatory policies. However, with the increasing research surrounding the effects of global climate change, environmental and climatic refugees are becoming a burgeoning and important group of refugees. The relationship between environmental drivers and migration began to be explored in the 1980s by the scholars El-Hinnawi and Jacobson (Berchin et al., 2017; Mence & Parrinder, 2017). The policy issues surrounding climate refugees were not considered widely until around 2006, when the Maldives government drew attention to this group by calling a meeting (Biermann & Boas, 2008). Currently there are no legal avenues for climate refugees to achieve refugee status as there are for other types of refugees, and they are not protected by the 1951 Convention. Here again, as in Zetter’s (2007) research, labels and the perception of those labels become important: the implications of “refugee” versus “displaced person” (Berchin et al., 2017; Mence & Parrinder, 2017).

Many researchers highlight that there have not been many instances where climate change was the only reason for a refugee to migrate, and highlights a few examples from Pacific Islands (Podesta, 2019; Mence & Parrinder, 2017). The fact that environmental and climate change related migration, like with all types of migration,  likely will have multiple causes makes the attempts to define it all the more difficult, and thus complicates the potential applications to policy. How do environmental migrants differ from climate change migrants? Should one group be considered “refugees” over the other?

Note: Registered students can access the readings in Canvas by clicking on the Library Resources link.